Lactonases with organophosphatase activity: structural and evolutionary perspectives.

Serum paraoxonase (PON1) is well recognized for its ability to hydrolyze arylesters, toxic oxon metabolites of organophosphate insecticides and nerve agents. PON1 is a member of gene family including also PON2 and PON3; however, the later two enzymes have very limited arylesterase and practically no organophosphatase activity. We have established that all three PONs are lactonases/lactonyzing enzymes with overlapping, but also distinct substrate specificity. Dihydrocoumarin (DHC), long chain fatty acid lactones and acylhomoserine lactones (AHLs) are hydrolyzed by all three PONs and likely represent their natural substrates. The 3D structure of PON1 is a six-bladed beta-propeller containing two Ca(2+) ions necessary for the enzyme stability and enzymatic activity. Senescence marker protein (SMP30), another putative six-bladed beta-propeller, hydrolyzes DFP, sarin and soman in the presence of Mg(2+) or Mn(2+). More recently, SMP30 was characterized as a gluconolactonase with a role in vitamin C metabolism. Bacterial phosphotriesterases (PTEs) are members of the amidohydrolase superfamily and differ in their structure from the eukaryotic organophosphatases; PTEs are (beta/alpha)(8) barrels with an active site containing two transition metal ions such as Co(2+), Mn(2+) or Zn(2+). PTE from Pseudomonas diminuta hydrolyzes paraoxon extremely efficiently; this enzyme was shown to hydrolyze also DHC and other lactones. At least 3 more bacterial lactonases, dubbed PTE-like lactonases (or PLL), have been identified to possess both lactonase and organophosphatase activities. Lactones are natural compounds, many of them with high biological activity, while organophosphates are human-made chemicals introduced in the 20th century. Thus, it is plausible that lactonase is the primary activity for which the enzymes discussed here evolved for, while the organophosphatase activity arose as a promiscuous activity during their evolution. Laboratory (directed) evolution studies provided mechanisms for their catalytic versatility and demonstrated experimentally the evolvability of promiscuous enzyme functions.